Table 1
Teachers’ (de)motivating styles and their respective teaching approaches described in the circumplex model
| (De)motivating style | Approach | Observable teaching behaviors | Level of BPN support | Level of directiveness |
| Autonomy support: Refers to the teacher’s adoption of an interpersonal tone of understanding, receptivity and flexibility toward students’ educational needs and learning-related interests. | Participative | The teacher gives students a voice. Fosters joint decision-making in the learning process. Offers opportunities for choice. Takes their interests into account. | BPN facilitator | Low to medium |
| Attuning | The teacher adapts content to students’ interests and preferences. Accepts negative expressions. Explains the importance of learning activities. | BPN support | Medium | |
| Structure: Refers to the teacher’s use of an interpersonal tone focused on progress and process, showing confidence in the student’s capacity to develop their abilities and skills. | Guiding | The teacher provides both useful and detailed initial information and constructive feedback. Adjusts the difficulty of the activities to the student’s capacities. Encourages students to complete the activities successfully. | BPN support | High |
| Clarifying | The teacher clearly communicates expectations and objectives. Consistently supervises the process. | BPN facilitator | High | |
| Control: Refers to when the teacher displays a tone of pressure and coercion not only to prioritize their class agenda, but to make students think, feel and act according to the predetermined way. | Demanding | The teacher uses orders, shouting and threats. Uses rewards and punishments. Uses an authoritarian tone. | BPN deprivation | Very high |
| Domineering | The teacher induces guilt and shame. Uses expressions of disapproval. Uses personal attacks. | BPN thwarting | Extremely high | |
| Chaos: Refers to when the teacher adopts a laissez-faire style, behaving unpredictably and inconsistently, which not only confuses the student but also hinders the development of their skills. | Abandoning | The teacher gives up after several attempts. Does not provide help when needed. | BPN thwarting | Very low |
| Awaiting | The teacher passively waits for the student to act. Does not initially intervene or guide. | BPN deprivation | Low | |
| Note. BPN = basic psychological needs. | ||||
