Situational and Game Variables in Rink Hockey: A Systematic Review

Jordi Arboix-Alió

Bernat Buscà

Javier Peña

Joan Aguilera-Castells

Adrià Miró

Azahara Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe

Guillem Trabal

Abstract

The main objective of this paper was to review the available literature on situational and game variables in the sport of rink hockey. The most common research topics were identified, their methodologies described and the evolving trends in this area of research systematised. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines. The following keywords were used: rink hockey and ice hockey, each combined with the terms “situational variables”, “match variables” and “game variables”. The databases used for the review were Pubmed, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria were: (1) relevant data on match variables in the sport of rink hockey; (2) data referring to professional competitions and/or senior/superior categories and (3) written in English or Spanish. After the review process, 20 studies met the inclusion criteria.

Situational variables such as the location of the match, the scoreboard status, spectators’ presence or the level of the teams, as well as the influence of set pieces and the role of the goalkeeper, have been included as research objects, as they seem to be effective variables of performance in rink hockey.

In view of the limitations of the studies reviewed, future research should provide predictive models and integrate situational and interactive contexts into the analysis of rink hockey performance. It should also provide more scientific knowledge on the sport, using new technologies and new approaches to study tactical elements in a sequential way.

Introduction 

The increasing professionalisation of high-level sport has led to an increase in the number of studies on the parameters that influence the final match outcome in a team sport context in recent years (Lago-Peñas et al., 2016b). Consequently, there is now a growing trend towards studying all possible game variables.

Performance analysis, defined as the description and understanding of the properties of the different variables that condition performance in competitive sports, is of great interest. Game analysis is widely recognised by coaches, sport analysts and athletes themselves as a relevant procedure for analysing and improving performance (Liu et al., 2016). Accordingly, a performance indicator is defined as a selection or combination of different sport variables that aims to define some or all of the aspects related to their effectiveness or influence (Hughes & Bartlett, 2002). In this sense, the need to identify these indicators for each sport, as well as to understand and establish their impact on the result, seems evident.

A number of studies have examined the importance of performance indicators in team sports. In recent years, they have been studied in sports such as basketball, handball and football (García Rubio et al., 2015; Lago-Peñas et al., 2016a). Many of these contributions have identified influential variables such as ball possession (Gómez et al., 2015), sending off players (Lago-Peñas et al., 2016b), match location (Pollard et al., 2017), substitutions (Gómez et al., 2016), and time of scoring (Baert & Amez, 2018).  

Rink hockey is a very popular team sport in Spain. The men’s national team is the current European champion and is also the most successful national team in the world, with a total of 17 world championships. Paradoxically, however, research aimed at analysing characteristic aspects of the sport is scarce. Of the few recently published studies on game variables, those referring to context stand out, such as the analysis of home advantage (HA) (Arboix-Alió et al., 2020; Arboix-Alió & Aguilera-Castells, 2019; Gómez et al., 2011), which estimates a 60% influence in men’s rink hockey, similar to that of other team sports. Other studies have analysed factors such as scoring the first goal of the match (Arboix-Alió & Aguilera-Castells, 2018), the goalkeeper’s performance (Sousa et al., 2020), the influence of set piece actions (Trabal et al., 2019b; Trabal et al., 2020a) and competitive balance between teams in the same leagues (Arboix-Alió et al., 2019a; Arboix-Alió et al., 2021b).

However, as far as the authors are aware, there is no systematic review on the influence of situational and game variables on the final result in rink hockey. The findings of this review could provide an insight into the most relevant information related to sport and performance variables in rink hockey, providing a useful tool for a better understanding of the game as well as highlighting potentially significant data for coaches and staff. For these reasons, the purpose of the present study is to systematically review and organise the existing literature on situational and game variables in rink hockey in an attempt to identify the most common research topics, classify their methodologies and systematise the evolutionary trends in the sport.

Methodology

Documentary sources and selection criteria

A systematic review of the available literature on game variables in rink hockey was carried out following the guidelines of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-analyses) guide according to Moher et al. (2009). In addition, the quality of all eligible studies was assessed using a table following the criteria of Law et al. (1998). This table is composed of 16 indices measuring the methodological quality of the studies (Table 1). The scoring for each index follows a binary scale (0/1) where 0 corresponds to a negative response and 1 to an affirmative response. Out of the total 16 indices, two (6 and 13) were not applicable to all studies, so the option NA (not applicable) was included. The sum of the total number of positive indices was used to indicate the quality of the study. According to their score, articles were classified as: a) low methodological quality (< 50%), b) good methodological quality (51-75%) and c) excellent methodological quality (> 75%) (Sarmento et al., 2018).

Table 1

Analysis of study quality (Law et al., 1998).

See Table

A search of the current literature was conducted using the electronic databases PubMed (1969-28 December 2021), Web of Science (1969-28 December 2021) and Google Scholar (1969-28 December 2021). The search strategy for each database is listed in Table 2.

Table 2

Search strategy, filters and databases used.

See Table

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria for these articles were: (1) relevant data on match variables in the sport of rink hockey; (2) data referring to professional competitions and/or senior/superior categories and (3) written in English or Spanish. Studies were excluded if: (1) they included basic or training (non-senior) categories; (2) they did not include any relevant data; and (3) they were conference abstracts. In addition, articles with insufficient discussion, poor data presentation and unclear or vague descriptions of the applied protocols were excluded (see flow chart of the search and study selection in Figure 1).

The lead author (J. A.-A.) carried out the data analysis and search process in the main databases. All electronically identified records were evaluated by title and abstract. Duplicate articles, which appeared in more than one database, were eliminated and considered only once. The full texts of all articles deemed potentially eligible were obtained. The first and last authors (J.A.-A., G.T.) then independently examined the pre-selected records and chose the final studies for inclusion in the review. In case of disparity, the opinion of the second author (B.B.) was considered.

Results 

Search results

Two independent reviewers identified a total of 81 articles in the initial search. 36 articles were duplicates, leaving 45 unique items. Based on the title/abstract, after reviewing the full text, 25 articles were excluded because they did not meet
the inclusion criteria. On the basis of this selection, a total of 20 articles were chosen for the final review (Figure 1).

Figure 1

See Full Size

Of the twenty studies reviewed, the match variables studied were: match location (Arboix-Alió et al., 2020; Arboix-Alió et al., 2021d; Arboix-Alió & Aguilera- Castells, 2019; Gómez et al., 2011), scoring first (Arboix- Alió & Aguilera-Castells, 2018), influence of set pieces (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021c; Arboix-Alió et al., 2021e; Arboix-Alió, et al., 2021f; Camões et al., 2022), the result of direct free kicks (Trabal et al., 2019b), situational variables (Arboix-Alió et al., 2022; Arboix-Alió et al., 2021a) and goalkeeper intervention (Kingman & Dyson, 2001; Sousa et al., 2020; Trabal et al., 2019a; Trabal et al., 2020a; Trabal et al., 2020b).

The results are presented below according to the main objective of the study. Table 3 shows the main features of all the studies reviewed, highlighting the type of study, the sample used, the variables analysed and the results obtained.

Table 3

Results of the review: Match variables in rink hockey.

See Table

Discussion 

The main objective of the present research was to identify the situational and game variables studied by the scientific literature in the sport of rink hockey. Most research to date has focused on analysing the influence of context, the relevance of set piece plays and the influence of the goalkeeper on the final result. Each type of analysis is discussed below.

Situational influence

The situational influence on performance is a latent issue that has historically been of interest in the world of sport. As early as the 1970s, the effect of the competition’s location on the final result has been studied (Pollard, 1986), a phenomenon that was termed “home advantage” (HA), since in most sports there is a tendency to perform better when competing at home compared to competing away from home. 

The HA phenomenon has probably been the most studied situational variable in the sporting world and the influence of this factor has been analysed in most sports. The scientific literature provides various studies, on the one hand, in individual sports such as tennis (Koning, 2011), judo (Ferreira Julio et al., 2012) or golf (Nevill et al., 1997). On the other hand, it has also been studied in team sports, which are the most analysed, particularly in football (Pollard & Gómez, 2012). In most of these team sports the HA factor exists and is estimated to be around 60% (Jamieson, 2010). However, the values may vary for the same sport depending on the type of competition, nationality or level of competition. Specifically in Spain, rugby is the sport with the highest rate of HA at 67%, while volleyball has a rate of 55.73% and water polo has a rate of 56.2% (Gómez et al., 2011).

As for rink hockey, Gómez et al. (2011) and Arboix-Alió and Aguilera-Castells (2019) have studied the HA factor in the men’s Ok Liga (Spain) finding a value of 58.3% and 59.8%, respectively. In the Portuguese championship, values of 60.88% in the men’s competition and 54.33% in the women’s competition have been reported (Arboix-Alió et al., 2020). In another predictive study, Arboix-Alió et al. (2022) estimated that Ok Liga teams were twice as likely to win when playing at home (OR = 2.085). Although there is a lack of studies in the present sport in relation to tactical and game aspects comparing winning and losing teams, these findings indicate that strategies in hockey may be influenced, in part, by the location of the match and that teams may alter their style of play accordingly. Pollard and Pollard (2005) highlight seven factors that explain HA, divided into psychological factors, tactical factors, territoriality, familiarity with the venue, referee bias, spectator support and physical fatigue caused by pre-match travel. Among these seven factors, it is worth highlighting the recent study published by Arboix-Alió et al. (2021d), who, taking advantage of the pandemic situation caused by COVID-19, which led to many matches being played behind closed doors, analysed the influence of spectators on HA in the Spanish, Portuguese and Italian leagues. Although the HA phenomenon did not vanish, its value experienced a significant decrease (63.99% with spectators vs. 57.41% without spectators), as well as revealing changes in different game variables. These include a decrease in goals scored at home and an increase in fouls committed or cards received for home teams when playing without a home crowd. 

In relation to scoring the first goal of the match, as in other team sports, this is an advantageous factor for the final result of the match. Arboix-Alió and Aguilera-Castells (2018) found that the advantage of scoring the first goal of the match amounted to 64.14% for the Ok Liga and 62.91% for the Ok Plata (Spain’s second highest national competition). Additionally, this factor has been estimated to have a predictive power of an OR of 2.289 (Arboix-Alió et al., 2022). Another of the situational variables studied in this sport has been leading at the end of half-time. This situation seems to have the highest predictive value (OR = 7.862) (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021a), and is even more evident when the result is positive with a difference equal to or greater than two goals (Arboix-Alió et al., 2022). 

The above situational variables could be explained by several reasons. Authors such as Jones (2009) would attribute the importance of scoring first or winning at half-time to the mere fact that this factor is already reflected in the final result of the match. Other authors attribute this to the psychological momentum theory, an explanation for the added advantage gained when an initial successful event occurs in a sporting context, which produces a psychological momentum in the athlete that will lead to subsequent success (Gayton et al., 1993).

In rink hockey alone, Arboix-Alió et al. (2021a) have analysed the interaction between the different situational variables, and it seems that, as in other team sports, the sum of these variables tends to increase their influence on the final outcome of matches (Lago-Peñas & Dellal, 2010; Lago et al., 2010).

Influence of set piece plays  

As far as set piece plays are concerned, there are two situations that occur frequently in rink hockey matches: direct free kicks (FDH) and penalty kicks (PEN). In FDH the kicker has five seconds to kick off (from 7.4 metres), with a choice between a direct kick or dribbling towards the goalkeeper, whereas, in PEN, the kicker has five seconds and must kick directly from the penalty spot (at 5.4 metres). In both situations there is a direct interaction between player and goalkeeper, the former being the more frequent due to the new rules of the European Committee of Rink Hockey (CERH), which in 2009 introduced the rule of penalising blue cards or the accumulation of 10 defensive fouls with a free kick for the offending team.

In this sense, Arboix-Alió et al. (2021c) reported that 21.08% of the Ok Liga goals are scored by FDH and PEN (11.58% and 9.49%, respectively), values similar to those of Camões et al. (2022) regarding the Portuguese league. Also, when comparing the effectiveness of set piece plays with end of the season ranking, the best teams launched a greater number of plays and obtained a higher effectiveness. The teams ranked in the top positions of the table have a significantly higher average number of goals from set pieces than the rest of the teams. Moreover, their effectiveness was higher, indicating better performance in this type of play (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021c). 

In terms of set-pieces conceded, there were also significant differences in the performance of goalkeepers according to the final ranking of the teams. The results showed that goalkeepers of teams ranked in the top positions of the table (1st to 4th) had a lower percentage of goals conceded (27.19%) compared to teams that achieve promotion or relegation (34.78% and 38.23%, respectively) (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021c). This trend has already been observed by Trabal et al. (2019b) in the Ok Liga teams, who demonstrated that the best teams tended to have the best goalkeepers in set pieces.

On the other hand, the study by Arboix-Alió et al. (2021e) reported that scoring more set pieces than the opponent was associated with the chances of winning (OR = 6.1; 95% CI: 3.7, 10.0) in a match sample composed only of national and international championship semi-finals and finals. In this sense, the authors confirmed the popular belief among coaches, players and supporters of rink hockey that the effectiveness of set pieces is a determining factor in the outcome of matches in contemporary hockey.

Finally, as regards the influence of situational variables on set-piece plays, neither the study by Trabal et al. (2020a) with a sample from the Ok Liga, nor the study by Arboix-Alió et al. (2021f) with a sample of matches corresponding to finals and semi-finals of national and international competitions, seem to indicate that context has a great relevance in the performance of these actions. Only scoreboard status had a significant influence on both FDH and PEN effectiveness. The players were significantly more successful in FDH when they led by two goals (OR = 2.4) and in PEN by three or more goals (OR = 3.83). In contrast, aspects such as location and time of match were not significant. In this sense, the present results reveal little influence of situational variables on the performance of these types of actions.

Goalkeeper influence

Another area that has brought together an important element of research on game variables in this sport has been related to the actions and influence of the figure of the goalkeeper. The behaviour of the goalkeeper, widely recognised as the most decisive figure in rink hockey (Sousa et al., 2021; Trabal, 2016), has been analysed both in the overall match (Sousa et al., 2020) and in an analytical way in set-piece, FD and PEN actions (Trabal et al., 2019a; Trabal et al., 2020b). Likewise, these studies have also analysed the influence of the situational variables: match time, type of defended actions and the scoreboard status, on the effectiveness of the goalkeeper.

In a recent study in the Portuguese 1st Division, Sousa et al. (2020) found that goalkeeper effectiveness was significantly better in the first half (OR 1.388) compared to the second half. This difference in effectiveness between halves could be explained by the inherent physical exhaustion of the goalkeepers involved in the match itself, a situation already observed in various technical actions with other team sports (Sarmento et al., 2014) and because in the second halves the goalkeeper has to face a greater number of set pieces (FDH and PEN) in which the percentage of effectiveness is lower than any other type of shot made during the course of a match (Sousa et al., 2020). The effectiveness observed in FDH is between 66.1% and 70.2% and in PEN, between 50.8% and 56.5% (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021f; Sousa et al., 2020; Trabal et al., 2020a), both percentages lower than the other types of finishes. Specifically, in the Ok Liga, 82.74% of FDH are executed in the second half (Trabal et al., 2020a), and in international competitions, 74.9% of FDH and 54.1% of PEN are executed in the second half (Arboix-Alió et al., 2021f).  

Another situational variable influencing goalkeeper effectiveness is the scoreboard status. With two goals or more conceded, the effectiveness over the course of the match decreases by 45% compared to a draw (Sousa et al., 2020). The same trend is observed in FD and PEN, where the percentage decreases to 57.7% and 32.2%, respectively (Trabal et al., 2020a). In these actions, the goalkeeper can be affected by a loss of concentration and motivation due to a decrease in the chances of winning the match (Trabal, 2017). 

The technical characterisation of the goalkeeper in FD makes it possible to identify two basic starting positions, which are the knee on the ground (49.1%) and the half-screen (28.2%), with a direct relationship with the two most used technical skills, “hurdling” (35.6%) and “screening” (24.6%) (Trabal et al., 2019b). The goalkeeper-player opposition in FDH creates a reciprocal influence on each other in which they condition one another. The most commonly used action against free kicks is “screening”, a technical action that has proven to be the most effective against these types of shots. On the other hand, in the face of dribbling, it is “hurdling”; a technical alternative based on the goalkeeper’s comfort and not so much on effectiveness (Trabal et al., 2019a; Trabal et al., 2020b).

Limitations and recommendations for future research

In this systematic review, most of the references are from 2018 or later, which indicates that the study of match variables in rink hockey has historically had little relevance, although it has recently attracted interest and has been gaining popularity among the sports science community. On the other hand, although this restricts historical comparisons, it ensures the validity of the analyses carried out, since they take into account the changes in regulations and playing trends currently used by teams and players. Only articles in English and Spanish have been included, so the lack of potentially relevant articles in other languages (i.e. Portuguese or Italian) may be a possible additional limitation. On the other hand, being a minority sport worldwide, but of great importance in certain territories of some countries, means that the vast majority of the research comes only from these geographical areas (e.g. Spain and Portugal). It would be interesting for future research to carry out studies with samples from other international leagues, as well as from different sports divisions in the same country in order to obtain a more global spectrum of sports data. 

At the methodological level, it has been observed that most of the studies analysed have been descriptive in nature. This leads to lower levels of scientific evidence than systematic reviews that consider scientific studies of a different nature (i.e. randomised clinical trials). However, given the scarcity of research in the sport of rink hockey, presenting all the evidence to date in a single article that synthesises it all is of great interest as it allows for learning about hitherto little-known data and can provide new information on the match variables in this team sport. However, for future studies and following the recommendations of authors such as Gréhaigne et al. (2001), it is suggested that it is necessary to prioritise prospective studies with more complex designs and methodologies of analysis that allow for analysing the factors that explain sporting success in rink hockey to a greater extent and independently. 

Conclusions

After conducting this systematic review, the authors confirm the influence of the situational variables and the degree of interaction of each one on both the outcome of the match and the competition in general. In the same way, the high relevance of set-piece actions in rink hockey and the role played by the goalkeeper in these actions is corroborated. 

The results of the present review are of general interest in the field of sports science, as they provide new data on match analysis in this collective sport, something that has never been seen before. 

On the other hand, and more particularly, these findings can provide valuable information to coaches and practitioners of this sport in aspects such as line-ups, according to the needs of the team itself, the characteristics of the opponent, the time of the match or the location. In this sense, they could also help coaching staff members to design specific training sessions based on specific match situations or also to simulate different match scenarios where the scoring advantage or disadvantage is present. These hypothetical situations could be useful to analyse and assess individual athletes’ responses to such situations and thus improve their performance under pressure. For this reason, it would also be advisable to consider the application of psychological alternatives to optimise sporting performance in moments of psychological pressure or sporting uncertainty inherent to competitive sports.