Effect of court dimensions on continuity in small-sided volleyball 

Felipe Menezes-Fagundes

Cristòfol Salas-Santandreu

Raúl Hileno

Pere Lavega-Burgués

Abstract

Sport initiation through small-sided games in cooperative-oppositional sports has been shown to be an effective pedagogical strategy. Coaches or educators modify certain features of the internal logic, such as the playing space, in order to favour the adaptation of the sport to the players’ potential and to develop specific playing principles. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the dimensions of the playing space on the principle of continuity in gameplay during the initiation to small-sided volleyball. A total of 136 university students participated in an experimental study with a simple crossover design. The influence of wider courts (4.5 m x 6 m; 27 m²) compared to narrower courts (6 m x 4.5 m; 27 m²) on four variables in 3 x 3 situations was analysed: number of contacts, possessions, completed complexes and use of the overhead pass in the first action of each possession or complex of play. Mixed-effects multilevel linear regression models were constructed. The results revealed a significant increase in all variables analysed in favour of the wide court. The court size was found to significantly increase continuity in small-sided volleyball, respectively from highest to lowest were the variables of possessions, number of contacts, overhead passes in the first action and completed complexes. The importance of considering not only smaller playing spaces, but also the dimensions of the playing spaces in the initiation to volleyball was emphasised. 

Introduction

In the field of sport education, the search for effective pedagogical methods and strategies to enhance learning in sport is a constant challenge (Abad-Robles et al., 2020; Fernández-Espínola et al., 2020; Hernández-Hernández et al., 2016). The most recent research on cooperative-oppositional sports indicates that game-based pedagogy is effective (Abad-Robles et al., 2020; Miller, 2015). To this end, research that evaluates sport teaching models offers essential evidence for the training and development of participants’ competencies (Barba-Martín et al., 2020; Ortiz et al., 2023). 

According to the principles of motor action theory, teachers and coaches must have an in-depth knowledge of the distinctive features of the internal logic of the sport, in order to introduce modifications in the relationships that the player will establish with other participants, space, time and equipment (Parlebas, 2001). These modifications will allow players to adapt their motor actions to new challenges that develop their thinking as a unit (in decisional, emotional, relational and structural dimensions) (Lavega-Burgués, 2007; Ureña-Espa et al., 2022). In this way, a logical correspondence will be established between the teaching-learning situations and the acquisition of the principles of play, which are the pillars of game-based teaching models (Martínez-Santos et al., 2020; Menezes-Fagundes et al., 2021; Palao-Andrés & Guzmán-Morales, 2008; Ureña-Espa et al., 2022).

These adaptations of the game situations applied from the comprehensive model (Teaching Games for Understanding),are usually expressed through two fundamental pedagogical principles: modification by representation and exaggeration (Thorpe et al., 1986). Modification by representation involves recreating conditions similar to those of the formal sport, usually incorporating changes such as a reduction in the playing space, the number of players, or the way equipment is handled. The aim is for participants to face challenges similar to those they would experience in a match and try to solve the problems posed by applying the basic principles of the game, while considering the adaptation of the game situation to their abilities (Thorpe et al., 1986). On the other hand, modification by exaggeration consists of highlighting or emphasising certain internal features of a game situation in order to emphasise a certain game principle or a specific action. This manipulation of the internal logic of the game enables the creation of specific learning situations in which players are able to understand and apply certain strategic principles or actions more effectively than in the context of formal sport (Thorpe et al., 1986). 

There is scientific evidence of the effects of spatial modification on tactical and technical learning in cooperative-oppositional sports; a topic which is of scientific interest (Rico-González et al., 2020). Studies (mostly of invasion sports) show a significant improvement in tactical-technical behaviour in football, basketball, handball and hockey, among others (Rocha et al., 2020a). The manipulation of space in different game situations has distinct effects on the occupation, exploration and domination of the court, ball circulation, performance of technical actions, decision-making and specific tactical behaviours (Dello Iacono et al., 2018; Ric et al., 2017; Rico-González et al., 2020; Timmerman et al., 2017). 

However, research examining the effects of modifying the internal logic in split-space sports is still scarce (Menezes-Fagundes et al., 2024; Palao-Andrés & Guzmán-Morales, 2008; Rocha et al., 2020a). In the specific case of sports such as volleyball, more scientific evidence is needed to demonstrate how the acquisition of fundamental principles of play in sport initiation, such as continuity, initiative and finishing, can be improved (Contreras-Jordán et al., 2007; Ureña-Espa et al., 2022). 

Inexperienced players often find it difficult to sustain long sequences of play. Hence, learning to build continuity within the game is fundamental knowledge in the initial stages (Arias-Estero, 2008; Ureña-Espa et al., 2013, 2022).  In volleyball, this continuity consists of maintaining an uninterrupted sequence of actions during the game (Ureña-Espa et al., 2013). It is therefore imperative that the proposed learning situations provide a minimum level of continuity to ensure the development of the players’ skills and the understanding of the principles of play that are applied in each task (Arias-Estero, 2008). 

Among the different principles of play, Hopper (1998) defines consistency as the ability to resend the ball to the opponent’s field, favouring the continuity of the play. The existence and relevance of this principle of play underlines the need to provide learning situations that promote the ability to maintain a minimum level of continuity (Ureña-Espa et al., 2013).

However, we are not aware of research that has explicitly examined the effect of court size in relation to the game principle of continuity in sport initiation. In light of this theoretical framework, the present research aims to evaluate the effects of the dimensions of the playing space on the principle of continuity during the initiation to small-sided volleyball. The following hypothesis is put forward: in areas of the same dimension, those spaces with greater width will generate greater continuity than courts with greater depth. 

Method

Participants

A total of 136 university students participated with a mean age of 20.85 (SD = 2.44 years), 46 females (33.82%) and 90 males (66.18%). The inclusion criterion was that participants had no sporting history associated with federated volleyball. All students agreed to participate in the study by signing the informed consent form. This research was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Catalan Sports Council in 2022 (Code 011/CEICGC/2022). In addition, the present research followed the ethical guidelines set out in the Declaration of Helsinki. 

Regarding the observation units, 38 games were analysed, totalling 1,072 analysed points that made up the sample of this research.

Design and Procedures 

To determine the effect of a binary categorical variable (court dimension) on a quantitative response variable (continuity), an experimental study was carried out with an AB-BAcrossover design. Observation was used as a technique for data collection within the experimental methodology. The participants were divided into five teaching groups. Each teaching group was organised into teams of three to five players. In order to homogenise the levels of play of the teams, 1 x 1 situations were previously conducted to classify them by different levels (from 1 to 8). This action led to the identification of 38 teams of a similar level. 

Each game was played on two different areas of play: a wide court and a narrow court. The wide court measured six metres wide by four and a half metres long (6 m x 4.5 m), while the narrow court measured four and a half metres wide by six metres long (4.5 m x 6 m). Therefore, the total area of play in each situation was 27 m², with the dimensions of these areas being modified. Thus, two groups (eight games) followed the wide-narrow sequence, while the remaining three groups (11 games) followed the reverse sequence. A set of eight minutes was played on each court, with a wash-out period of five minutes between the two matches. At the start of the second situation, the same initial rotation adopted in the first scenario was maintained. Teams with more than three players made constant changes of one player in each rotation. 

The allocation of the sequence of courts for each group was done on a randomised basis. All the matches were recorded with Sony Handycam cameras (HDR-CX405 model) from a low angle and in a perpendicular position to the net, in order to facilitate the subsequent observational analysis.

The game situations consisted of 3 x 3 games, with the following rules of play: underarm serve or overhead pass behind the baseline; maximum three serves per player (when any player reaches this limit, the team rotates and holds serve); and change of sides every seven points. In both situations, the net was located at a height of 2.35 metres. 

38 matches were observed, with 19 games between the teams on each of the courts. We used court design as an independent variable and four dependent variables linked to continuity of play (see Table 1).

Table 1

Description of the variables studied.

See Table

Finally, 1,072 rallies were observed on the ad hoc observation instrument,with the observation criteria set out in Table 1. The analysis was recorded using Microsoft Excel. For the reliability process of the observational record, two observers conducted joint pilot tests to test the observation instrument, followed by a reliability test in which both observers independently observed 411 points in the sample (38.34%), therefore reaching an excellent level of agreement for all the variables analysed (contacts per rally: 0.980; possessions per point: 0.962; completed complexes per point: 0.974; overhead pass in the first action: 0.850) (Fleiss, 1986).

Statistical Analysis

For the data analysis, the 1,072 observed points were collated to generate a mean for each of the four observed variables per match (see Table 2). 

Table 2

Data analysed in the mixed models.

See Table

Four multilevel mixed-effects linear regression models were then constructed. The independent variable (exposure) was the court dimension, wide (= 1) and narrow (= 0). The dependent variables (response) reflected the continuity of play: number of contacts, possessions, completed game complexes, number of overhead passes in the initial action. The narrow court was considered as a reference category on the basis of the hypothesis put forward.
The covariates considered were period and sequence, and the potential confounding variable was the score difference at the end of the match.

The covariates of period and sequence originally constituted a crossover design study, with the aim of neutralising possible external effects on the dependent variables (Doménech, 2017). The covariate of period ensures that having played in a previous situation (Period 1) does not impact on the results found in the second situation (Period 2). This covariate reflects how these effects capture possible interactions between intervention, period and group in the observed variables. The covariate of sequence is intended to ensure that the order of match play (wide-narrow or narrow-wide) does not interfere with the observed variables (Doménech, 2017). Non-significant results of these covariates point to the non-existence of these effects on the dependent variables and provide a more robust test of the effect of the independent variable. Finally, in the regression process, when inserting the possible confounding variable “score difference”, a difference of more than 5% in the averages of the dependent variables was identified and, for this reason, it was added to the model as an adjustment variable. 

Results

According to the data presented in Table 3, in all the mixed models there was a significant increase in the continuity of play in the analysed variables when playing on a wide court compared to a narrow one (contacts per point: 0.874, standardised coefficient = .306, 95% CI [0.210, 1.539], possessions per point: 0.414, standardised coefficient = .352, 95% CI [0.128, 0.699]; completed complexes per point: 0.181, standardised coefficient = .232, 95% CI [0.014, 0.348]; overhead pass on first action: 0.129, standardised coefficient = .271, 95% CI [0.005, 0.252]). All results were statistically significant (p < .05) and the effect size was moderate for all variables studied (Fey et al., 2023).

Table 3

Effect of court dimensions on continuity variables (mixed models).

See Table

The mixed models did not show significant differences on the covariate period, except for the variable of overhead passes in the first defensive action. In this case, the results of Period 2 were influenced by Period 1. In relation to the covariate of sequence, no significant difference was found for all variables, meaning that there was no interference with the results regardless of the order of the intervention. The results of the mixed models, and the standardisation of the coefficients obtained, can be found in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.

Table 4

Standardisation of coefficients for the effects of court size on continuity.

See Table

Discussion

This article has evaluated the effect of the dimensions of the playing space on the principle of continuity in initiation to small-sided volleyball. The results obtained revealed significant differences in favour of the wide court in all the variables related to the continuity of play (number of contacts, number of possessions, number of completed complexes and number of overhead passes in the first touch per point). 

When these data were subjected to the coefficient homogenisation process, the most pronounced effect manifested itself in the possessions per point variable, followed by the number of contacts per point. Considering that a medium effect size was obtained for all variables, we can conclude that the wide court led to more continuity than the narrow court. 

No scientific articles have been found that have specifically investigated the impact of the configuration of the playing space on the principle of continuity. However, research has identified significant correlations between the effects of the configuration and use of space, and the quality of play in volleyball, which refer to variables linked to continuity (Barsingerhorn et al., 2013; Gil-Arias et al., 2016; Jorge Rodrigues et al., 2022; Paulo et al., 2016; Rocha et al., 2020a, 2020b).

Findings similar to ours were identified by Rocha et al. (2020a) that compared the technical-tactical performance in side out (reception, set and attack) of male juniors in two situations of 2 x 2 in a reduced space (court 3 metres long by 3 metres wide and court 2 metres long by 4.5 metres wide). It is observed that using the wider court significantly improves technical execution, adjustment and decision making in side out. On the other hand, by playing on the square court, players improve the effectiveness of their reception. The authors suggest that a shorter court allows for better technical performance in reception (Rocha et al., 2020a). In line with our findings, it is plausible to assert that by creating situations on wider rather than longer courts that encourage execution, adjustment and decision making on the first touch, continuity of play is enhanced.

In contrast to our study, where both courts had the same total area (27 m²), other studies have analysed the effect of different court sizes on game variables. Jorge Rodrigues et al. (2022) compared the tactical-technical performance of novice players on four volleyball courts of different sizes (3.0 x 3.0 m, 4.0 x 4.0 m, 4.6 x 4.6 m and 5.2 x 5.2 m). The results obtained indicate that on smaller courts the execution of defensive actions is improved by generating shorter movements and facilitating the adjustment of their interventions. However, a decrease in the effectiveness of attacks was identified; this is attributable to the greater demand for precision in the execution of these actions due to the use of limited space. On the other hand, larger courts provided better results in effectiveness and decision making, especially in offensive actions.

Similarly, Gil-Arias et al. (2016) implemented a didactic unit focused on volleyball, where different elements of its internal logic were manipulated (the playing space, the height of the net and the number of participants). The aim was to assess the effects of these modifications on the efficacy and decision making of the attack among schoolchildren. The results obtained indicated a significant improvement in the variables analysed. In relation to playing space, especially in the early stages of the process, it has been observed that larger courts promote decision-making and the execution of attacks. This is mainly due to the greater space that is created between the defenders, making it easier to identify empty spaces.

However, Barsingerhorn et al. (2013) observed that the trajectory of the ball influences the choice of the action used, indicating that there is greater difficulty in making receptions that require a displacement prior to contact. These results help to strengthen the idea that the dimensions and configuration of the playing space influences the motor behaviour of the players.

In relation to continuity in 6 x 6 volleyball, in the children and adult categories, other studies have identified that approximately a quarter of the points played are lost exclusively due to a lack of continuity, mainly due to lack of coordination of the team in the side out (complex I) or difficulty in executing the first action (Callejón-Lirola, 2006; Ureña-Espa et al., 2013).

Regarding the lack of coordination in the team, our findings suggest that the use of small-sided situations in spaces with more width than length seem to encourage the execution of the three contacts allowed per possession, as an increase in the number of completed complexes was observed. This result, combined with the increase in the number of possessions and contacts per rally, indicates that the wide court seems to stimulate more collective play than the narrow court.

With regard to the difficulty of carrying out the first action, different studies have examined this issue in depth (Afonso et al., 2009, 2012; Barsingerhorn et al., 2013; Paulo et al., 2016). Afonso et al. (2009) found that the use of overhead passes increases the likelihood of successful ball reception in real game situations with professional players. 

About the types of pass used in the first action, Paulo et al. (2016) concluded that a more advanced initial receiving position favours the use of overhead passes in decontextualised situations among expert players. In our research, we have not considered the position of the players, but it is intuited that the wide court naturally generates a more forward position in relation to the narrow court, as the players tend to position themselves centrally in relation to the playing space.

In the study we conducted, we found that more overhead actions are performed on the wide court compared to the narrow court. Barsingerhorn et al. (2013) found that bumping is used more frequently in situations that require greater displacement, especially when balls are directed towards the forward area. However, their results showed no significant difference in effectiveness between the use of overhead passes and bump passes. 

However, the application of the AB-BA crossover design showed that the variable overhead pass in the first action had a non-systematic effect. It has been observed that, on average, overhead passes are used more frequently in the second situation in a systematic way, regardless of the order used. This means that there was some kind of learning between the two situations that systematically encouraged the use of overhead passes in the second game. Therefore, from the data we obtained, we cannot affirm that it is the court width variable that favours the use of the overhead pass, as there may be other variables that enhance this effect. For further crossover design studies, we suggest a wash-out time to neutralise possible learning effects of situation one on situation two. 

Conclusions

This study confirms that the configuration of the playing space significantly influences the continuity of volleyball game actions. This finding strengthens the hypothesis that modifying the internal logic of game situations generates different impacts on participants. It is therefore advisable to incorporate different criteria for selecting and proposing learning situations (Gil-Arias et al., 2016). 

The internal logic of any sport requires participants to solve problems related to the relationship with others, space, equipment and time. Understanding the effects of modifying any of these relationships on motor behaviour is a key factor in favouring personalised sport initiation programmes (Gil-Arias et al., 2016; Martínez-Santos et al., 2020; Menezes-Fagundes et al., 2021; Parlebas, 2020). 

According to the specific literature, analysing crossover designs based on several students’ t tests is a suitable procedure for simple crossover design studies (Doménech, 2017). This statistical analysis allows for the inclusion in the model of the independent and dependent variables, the covariates of period and sequence, as well as other possible covariates such as score difference, gender and mean age. 

This study has certain limitations, most notably the absence of a control group. It would have been feasible to propose in this study the inclusion of a group participating in a 5 m x 5 m court. Also, the short washout period of five minutes may also have interfered with the non-systematic effect observed for the variable overhead pass in the first action. However, it is important to note that this court would not have the same surface area in square metres as those used in the study. For future research, the use of the standard mini-volleyball court as a control group could be considered. In addition, it would be relevant to explore alternative wide and narrow court designs that maintain the same or similar 36 m² area as the standard court (6 m x 6 m), to enable comparisons between court designs (for example, 5.08 m x 7.1 m and 7.1 m x 5.08 m). 

We suggest further research to broaden the understanding of the effects of playing space in a variety of split-space sports. In addition, it would be interesting to explore how the modification of other factors of internal logic influences the players’ motor behaviours when trying to appropriate the game principles of sports. 

Despite the fact that this was an experimental study and the groups were homogenised according to their level of play, there were matches in which the difference in the score between the two teams at the end of the match was considerable. Therefore, when introducing the score difference covariate in the mixed model, we observed differences of more than 5% in the mean of all the variables studied. This means that the difference in score must be taken into account as it adjusts the results obtained. We recommend that future studies that want to analyse continuity should consider score difference as a possible adjustment variable.

The consistency of the results on the variables studied supports the relevance of the dimensions of playing space in the teaching of volleyball. The results corroborate the hypothesis that wider and shorter courts may be more conducive to continuity than narrower and longer courts. This finding provides interesting information for the design of game situations aimed at optimising the initiation of players into sport using small-sided games in split-space sports.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC) of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia, Spain).